Language Wikipedia. Language is a system that consists of the development, acquisition, maintenance and use of complex systems of communication, particularly the human ability to do so and a language is any specific example of such a system. The scientific study of language is called linguistics. Questions concerning the philosophy of language, such as whether words can represent experience, have been debated since Gorgias and Plato in ancient Greece. Thinkers such as Rousseau have argued that language originated from emotions while others like Kant have held that it originated from rational and logical thought. Wittgenstein argued that philosophy is really the study of language. Major figures in linguistics include Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky. Estimates of the number of human languages in the world vary between 5,0. However, any precise estimate depends on a partly arbitrary distinction between languages and dialects. Natural languages are spoken or signed, but any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory, visual, or tactile stimuli for example, in whistling, signed, or braille. This is because human language is modality independent. Depending on philosophical perspectives regarding the definition of language and meaning, when used as a general concept, language may refer to the cognitive ability to learn and use systems of complex communication, or to describe the set of rules that makes up these systems, or the set of utterances that can be produced from those rules. Language is a system that consists of the development, acquisition, maintenance and use of complex systems of communication, particularly the human ability to do so. Cambridge Core Strategic Management Stakeholder Theory by R. Edward Freeman. Etymology. The word meme is a shortening modeled on gene of mimeme from Ancient Greek pronounced mmma mmma, imitated thing, from. Charles R. Darwin Dual Language Program' title='Charles R. Darwin Dual Language Program' />All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs to particular meanings. Oral, manual and tactile languages contain a phonological system that governs how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes, and a syntactic system that governs how words and morphemes are combined to form phrases and utterances. Human language has the properties of productivity and displacement, and relies entirely on social convention and learning. Its complex structure affords a much wider range of expressions than any known system of animal communication. BibMe Free Bibliography Citation Maker MLA, APA, Chicago, Harvard. Nback is a kind of mental training intended to expand your working memory WM, and hopefully your intelligence IQ 1. The theory originally went that novel 2. Rinker Special Edition. Charles R. Darwin Dual Language Program' title='Charles R. Darwin Dual Language Program' />Language is thought to have originated when early hominins started gradually changing their primate communication systems, acquiring the ability to form a theory of other minds and a shared intentionality. This development is sometimes thought to have coincided with an increase in brain volume, and many linguists see the structures of language as having evolved to serve specific communicative and social functions. Language is processed in many different locations in the human brain, but especially in Brocas and Wernickes areas. Charles R. Darwin Dual Language Program' title='Charles R. Darwin Dual Language Program' />Humans acquire language through social interaction in early childhood, and children generally speak fluently by approximately three years old. The use of language is deeply entrenched in human culture. Therefore, in addition to its strictly communicative uses, language also has many social and cultural uses, such as signifying group identity, social stratification, as well as social grooming and entertainment. Languages evolve and diversify over time, and the history of their evolution can be reconstructed by comparing modern languages to determine which traits their ancestral languages must have had in order for the later developmental stages to occur. A group of languages that descend from a common ancestor is known as a language family. The Indo European family is the most widely spoken and includes languages as diverse as English, Russian and Hindi the Sino Tibetan family, which includes Mandarin, Bodo and the other Chinese languages, and Tibetan the Afro Asiatic family, which includes Arabic, Somali, and Hebrew the Bantu languages, which include Swahili, and Zulu, and hundreds of other languages spoken throughout Africa and the Malayo Polynesian languages, which include Indonesian, Malay, Tagalog, and hundreds of other languages spoken throughout the Pacific. Oregon Trail 2 Download Pc Game. The languages of the Dravidian family that are spoken mostly in Southern India include Tamil and Telugu. Academic consensus holds that between 5. Definitions. The English word language derives ultimately from Proto Indo Europeandnwhs tongue, speech, language through Latinlingua, language tongue, and Old Frenchlanguage. The word is sometimes used to refer to codes, ciphers, and other kinds of artificially constructed communication systems such as formally defined computer languages used for computer programming. Unlike conventional human languages, a formal language in this sense is a system of signs for encoding and decoding information. This article specifically concerns the properties of natural human language as it is studied in the discipline of linguistics. Darwin.jpg' alt='Charles R. Darwin Dual Language Program' title='Charles R. Darwin Dual Language Program' />As an object of linguistic study, language has two primary meanings an abstract concept, and a specific linguistic system, e. French. The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, who defined the modern discipline of linguistics, first explicitly formulated the distinction using the French word langage for language as a concept, langue as a specific instance of a language system, and parole for the concrete usage of speech in a particular language. When speaking of language as a general concept, definitions can be used which stress different aspects of the phenomenon. These definitions also entail different approaches and understandings of language, and they also inform different and often incompatible schools of linguistic theory. Debates about the nature and origin of language go back to the ancient world. Greek philosophers such as Gorgias and Plato debated the relation between words, concepts and reality. Gorgias argued that language could represent neither the objective experience nor human experience, and that communication and truth were therefore impossible. Plato maintained that communication is possible because language represents ideas and concepts that exist independently of, and prior to, language. During the Enlightenment and its debates about human origins, it became fashionable to speculate about the origin of language. Thinkers such as Rousseau and Herder argued that language had originated in the instinctive expression of emotions, and that it was originally closer to music and poetry than to the logical expression of rational thought. Rationalist philosophers such as Kant and Descartes held the opposite view. Around the turn of the 2. This led to the question of whether philosophical problems are really firstly linguistic problems. The resurgence of the view that language plays a significant role in the creation and circulation of concepts, and that the study of philosophy is essentially the study of language, is associated with what has been called the linguistic turn and philosophers such as Wittgenstein in 2. These debates about language in relation to meaning and reference, cognition and consciousness remain active today. Mental faculty, organ or instinct. Charles R. Darwin Dual Language Program' title='Charles R. Darwin Dual Language Program' />One definition sees language primarily as the mental faculty that allows humans to undertake linguistic behaviour to learn languages and to produce and understand utterances. This definition stresses the universality of language to all humans, and it emphasizes the biological basis for the human capacity for language as a unique development of the human brain. Meme Wikipedia. This article is about the term meme in general. For the usage of the term on the internet or a fad that spreads quickly, see Internet meme. For other uses, see Meme disambiguation. A meme MEEM is an idea, behavior, or style that spreads from person to person within a culture often with the aim of conveying a particular phenomenon, theme, or meaning represented by the meme. A meme acts as a unit for carrying cultural ideas, symbols, or practices, that can be transmitted from one mind to another through writing, speech, gestures, rituals, or other imitable phenomena with a mimicked theme. Supporters of the concept regard memes as cultural analogues to genes in that they self replicate, mutate, and respond to selective pressures. Proponents theorize that memes are a viral phenomenon that may evolve by natural selection in a manner analogous to that of biological evolution. Memes do this through the processes of variation, mutation, competition, and inheritance, each of which influences a memes reproductive success. Memes spread through the behavior that they generate in their hosts. Memes that propagate less prolifically may become extinct, while others may survive, spread, and for better or for worse mutate. Memes that replicate most effectively enjoy more success, and some may replicate effectively even when they prove to be detrimental to the welfare of their hosts. A field of study called memetics4 arose in the 1. Criticism from a variety of fronts has challenged the notion that academic study can examine memes empirically. However, developments in neuroimaging may make empirical study possible. Some commentators in the social sciences question the idea that one can meaningfully categorize culture in terms of discrete units, and are especially critical of the biological nature of the theorys underpinnings. Others have argued that this use of the term is the result of a misunderstanding of the original proposal. The word meme is a neologism coined by Richard Dawkins. It originated from Dawkins 1. The Selfish Gene. Dawkinss own position is somewhat ambiguous he welcomed N. K. Humphreys suggestion that memes should be considered as living structures, not just metaphorically9 and proposed to regard memes as physically residing in the brain. Later, he argued that his original intentions, presumably before his approval of Humphreys opinion, had been simpler. At the New Directors Showcase 2. Cannes, Dawkins opinion on memetics was deliberately ambiguous. Etymology. The word meme is a shortening modeled on gene of mimeme from Ancient Greekpronounced mmmammma, imitated thing, from mimeisthai, to imitate, from mimos, mime1. British evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins in The Selfish Gene 1. Examples of memes given in the book included melodies, catchphrases, fashion, and the technology of building arches. Kenneth Pike coined the related terms emic and etic, generalizing the linguistic idea of phoneme, morpheme, grapheme, lexeme, and tagmeme as set out by Leonard Bloomfield, characterizing them as insider view and outside view of behaviour and extending the concept into a tagmemic theory of human behaviour culminating in Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behaviour, 1. Origins. The word meme originated with Richard Dawkins 1. The Selfish Gene. Dawkins cites as inspiration the work of geneticist L. L. Cavalli Sforza, anthropologist F. T. Cloak1. 6 and ethologist J. M. Cullen. 1. 7 Dawkins wrote that evolution depended not on the particular chemical basis of genetics, but only on the existence of a self replicating unit of transmissionin the case of biological evolution, the gene. For Dawkins, the meme exemplified another self replicating unit with potential significance in explaining human behavior and cultural evolution. Although Dawkins invented the term meme and developed meme theory, the possibility that ideas were subject to the same pressures of evolution as were biological attributes was discussed in Darwins time. T. H. Huxley claimed that The struggle for existence holds as much in the intellectual as in the physical world. A theory is a species of thinking, and its right to exist is coextensive with its power of resisting extinction by its rivals. Kilroy was here was a graffito that became popular in the 1. Dawkins used the term to refer to any cultural entity that an observer might consider a replicator. He hypothesized that one could view many cultural entities as replicators, and pointed to melodies, fashions and learned skills as examples. Memes generally replicate through exposure to humans, who have evolved as efficient copiers of information and behavior. Because humans do not always copy memes perfectly, and because they may refine, combine or otherwise modify them with other memes to create new memes, they can change over time. Dawkins likened the process by which memes survive and change through the evolution of culture to the natural selection of genes in biological evolution. Dawkins defined the meme as a unit of cultural transmission, or a unit of imitation and replication, but later definitions would vary. The lack of a consistent, rigorous, and precise understanding of what typically makes up one unit of cultural transmission remains a problem in debates about memetics. In contrast, the concept of genetics gained concrete evidence with the discovery of the biological functions of DNA. Meme transmission requires a physical medium, such as photons, sound waves, touch, taste, or smell because memes can be transmitted only through the senses. Dawkins noted that in a society with culture a person need not have descendants to remain influential in the actions of individuals thousands of years after their death But if you contribute to the worlds culture, if you have a good idea. Socrates may or may not have a gene or two alive in the world today, as G. C. Williams has remarked, but who cares The meme complexes of Socrates, Leonardo, Copernicus and Marconi are still going strong. Although Dawkins invented the term meme, he has not claimed that the idea was entirely novel,2. In 1. 90. 4, Richard Semon published Die Mneme which appeared in English in 1. The Mneme. The term mneme was also used in Maurice Maeterlincks The Life of the White Ant 1. Dawkinss concept. Memetic lifecycle transmission, retention. Memes, analogously to genes, vary in their aptitude to replicate successful memes remain and spread, whereas unfit ones stall and are forgotten. Thus memes that prove more effective at replicating and surviving are selected in the meme pool. Memes first need retention. The longer a meme stays in its hosts, the higher its chances of propagation are. When a host uses a meme, the memes life is extended. The reuse of the neural space hosting a certain memes copy to host different memes is the greatest threat to that memes copy. A meme which increases the longevity of its hosts will generally survive longer. On the contrary, a meme which shortens the longevity of its hosts will tend to disappear faster. However, as hosts are mortal, retention is not sufficient to perpetuate a meme in the long term memes also need transmission. Driver Used In Wilson Speakers Price'>Driver Used In Wilson Speakers Price. Life forms can transmit information both vertically from parent to child, via replication of genes and horizontally through viruses and other means.